Source: German Centre for Higher Education Research and Science Studies, calculations; OECD, Main Science and Technology Indicators März 2025

Notes:
¹⁾ Some figures are revised, provisional, estimated, differently defined or only partly comparable with figures from previous years (see original edition of "Main Science and Technology Indicators March 2025").
²⁾ PNP: private non-profit institutions.
³⁾ Until 1990 Western German Länder only. Increases in the higher education sector from 2016 onwards are also methodological due to an adjustment of the R&D coefficients.
⁴⁾ As of 2021, the business enterprise sector includes external personnel.
⁵⁾ As of 2002, the business enterprise survey specifically requests data on researchers, technicians and other personnel. Earlier data for R&D personnel by occupation are based on qualification. Break in time series in 2007 due to a methodological adjustment in data collection and a change in the administrative structures of certain institutes, which were classified under the government sector until 2006 and under the higher education sector from 2007 onwards.
⁶⁾ As of 1997, the higher education sector includes central university hospitals. From 1997 and the implementation of ISCED 97, "Researchers" also includes holders of engineering degrees and graduates of vocational polytechnics, degrees which are now classified in First Stage Tertiary Education (ISCED 5A). As of 2004, R&D personnel data are available according to occupation. Previous breakdown was by formal qualification. In 2011, a new methodology for calculating the time spent on R&D by personnel in the Higher Education sector was implemented. As a consequence, R&D personnel (measured in FTE) in the Higher Education sector decreased.
⁷⁾ Before 1996, Higher Education expenditure and personnel data in FTE are OECD estimates derived from official headcount-based data. Beginning with the survey for OECD data 2002, the supplied coefficients were applied to doctoral level students as well as teachers when calculating FTE for the HE sector, resulting in a break in series in that year. In 2008, 2013, and 2018, the FTE coefficients for researchers in the higher education sector were revised, producing an increase in personnel for this sector and the national total in 2013 and 2018, and a decrease in 2008.
⁸⁾ As of 2007, the former "post-secondary colleges for teacher training" ("Pädagogische Akademien") have become "Universities of Education" and are, consequently surveyed as units of the higher education sector (until 2006, these units were covered in the Government sector). Since 2009, a large unit previously omitted has been included as an R&D performer in the PNP sector. Three large units were reclassified in the Government sector in 2016 (previously included in the business and the Higher education sectors).
⁹⁾ As of 2013, time series break because part of personnel data were reallocated from the category technical and other personnel to the category researchers. Until 2006, data correspond to higher education graduates instead of researchers. As of 2005, government sector excludes R&D personnel from the county councils.
¹⁰⁾ The business enterprise sector comprises private enterprises only. Public enterprises are included in the government sector.
¹¹⁾ For the years from 2018 onwards, estimates for R&D personnel in the Business enterprise sector were significantly revised by the United Kingdom. These changes reflect an uplift recalibration to account for under-sampled businesses performing R&D. The revised estimates for R&D personnel have not yet been included in the OECD database. Beginning in 2005, numbers of researchers in FTE incorporate a more accurate measure of post-graduate students.
¹²⁾ Due to lack of official data for the different employment sectors, the total researchers figure is an OECD estimate up to 2021. As of 2022, it is based on official personnel data available for all sectors.

m = data not available.

Last update: April 16, 2025